The War of the Sons of Light Against the Sons of Darkness is a manual for military organization and strategy that was discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls. It is also known by the names "War Rule", "Rule of War", and "War Scroll". The manuscript was among the scrolls from Qumran Cave 1 acquired by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, and first published by Eleazar Sukenik in 1955.[1] The document is made up of various scrolls and fragments including 1QM, and 4Q491-497.[2] It is possible that The War of the Messiah is the conclusion to this document.[3] The 4Q491-497 fragments were published by Baillet in Discoveries in the Judean Desert, 7 and comprise a shorter recension of the War Scroll.[4]
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Two time periods have been put forward and defended as the most probable time of composition: the Seleucid period and the Roman period.[5] The Seleucid period proposals include the very beginning of the Maccabean Revolt (165 or 164 BCE), the height of Jonathan’s military power (143 BCE), and the reign of John Hyrcanus (135-104 BCE).[6] The scholars that believe that the date of composition occurred during the Roman period put forward a date from the middle of the first century BCE to the first decade of the first century CE.[7] The War Scroll’s description of the weaponry and tactics led Yigael Yadin to assign the composition of the scroll to a date between the capture of Jerusalem by Pompey (65 BCE) and the death of Herod (4 BCE).[8]
Scholars have been unable to determine the exact author of the text. The unity and cohesiveness of the manuscript, however, leads some, such as Jean Carmignac and Yigael Yadin, to believe that it was written or compiled by a single writer.[9]
In modern times, the genre of 1QM has been described as apocalyptic literature, though some translators and interpreters contend that it actually a part of sectarian liturgy. Jean Duhaime believes that it was probably classified as a part of the serek (rule) texts developed by the Qumranites.[10]
These scrolls contain an apocalyptic prophecy of a war between the Sons of Light and the Sons of Darkness. The war is first described as an attack by the Sons of Light, consisting of the sons of Levi, the sons of Judah, and the sons of Benjamin, and the exiled of the desert, against Edom, Moab, the sons of Ammon, the Amalekites, Philistia, and the Kittim of Asshur (referred to as the army of Belial), and [those who assist them from among the wicked] who "violate the covenant."[11] In the end, all of Darkness is to be destroyed and Light will live in peace for all eternity. The war is then described again as a conflict between the congregation of God and the congregation of men. The rest of the document is a detailed description of the events of the war and the ways in which it should be conducted.
1QM consists of 19 columns, of which the first 14-19 lines of each have been preserved.[12]
Because xv-xix is believed to describe the war which took place in the first seven years of the forty year war, many scholars feel that, at one time, more columns existed.[14]
Scholars have been disappointed to find very few connections between 1QM and the other war-related texts and the rest of the Dead Sea Scrolls. There were, however, a number of notable links that can be made. In the Community Rule (1QS), for example, the theme of a binary opposition between Light and Dark can be seen. Both include dualistic blessing and cursing liturgies. The “congregation of Israel” in its organization within 1QM can be compared to the Rule of the Congregation (1QSa), as it is described as being broken into thousands, hundreds, fifties and tens, with age limits listed for specific types of service within ranks.[15]